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Coming in
Future issues!
December - Our holiday issue with great gift ideas for the equestrian in your life.
Plus Your Role in Hoof Care (part one); Endotoxemia and Colic;
AQHA Versatility Ranch Horse Competition
January 2003- Progress in EPM,
West Nile Virus: Be Prepared; Horse Racing; What’s It All
About. Look for us at the Sun City Circuit in Scottsdale,Az and
Denver Stock Show, Denver, CO
February 2003 - Stallion Issue, Look for us at the Scottscale
Arabian Show. Plus Care of the Broodmare in Early Pregnancy
March 2003- Look for us at the Rocky Mountain Horse Expo, Denver.
Plus Saddles: Custom or Off-the-Rack
April 2003- Helping a Foal
Nurse; Packing Your Horse: Gearing Up For The Trip
May 2003- Kids Camp Issue -
featuring horseback riding camps from all over the southwest.
Watch for us at the The New Mexico Horse Fair, Albuquerque, NM
June 2003- City Slickers: Dude
Ranches in the Southwest
August 2003: Colorado State
Fair, Pueblo, CO
October 2003: New Mexico State
Fair • IAHA Arabian Nationals
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IN THIS
MONTHS ISSUE
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January 2002 |
On the cover:
AJA Sinjin
1999 Purebred Arabian Stallion
with trainer Krista Fagley
Owned by: Art Wuest
Photo by Art Wuest
See page 17
for more information
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Table Of
Contents
Equine Breeding:
Infertility in
Stallions: Factors Affecting
Fertility ............. 6
Classical Horse: Flexions,
Softening and Beginning
Lateral Work
by Ginger Gaffney............. 8
Horse and Rider: The Magic of
Round Pens
by Christina Fleming.............. 10
Just My Opinion
by John “Flint” Martin............. 11
Dressage Horse & Rider: Getting
Started in Dressage Part Six
by Dianne Fay............. 12
Focus on Mules
by Sophia Sarember.............. 13
Your Role in Hoof Care Part Two
by Sophia Sarember.............. 20
West Nile Virus Update
by Starla Nicovich............. 22
Ask Erlene: Questions and
Answers with Erlene Caldwell .............
26 |
Equine Breeding:
Infertility in Stallions: Factors Affecting Fertility
Stallion fertility can be affected by many
things including age, heredity, management, season of year, illness or injury. The
term infertile is often interpreted several ways. Actually there are three categories
when assessing a stallion – fertile, subfertile, and sterile. A horse can be temporarily sterile
(following fever or injury, for instance). Subfertile is a very broad category that can
encompass a wide variety of problems or situations ranging from mild subfertilty (a stallion
that gets about half his mares pregnant per cycle) to marked subfertility (10 to 30 percent
pregnancy rate).
Age of Stallion
A stallion is not fertile until he reaches sexual maturity. The testicles start producing
sperm when the colt is a yearling, but he usual-ly does not reach full maturity until age two.
Even then he is not capable of breeding very many mares. The young stallion should be used
on a very limited basis until he is three or four. Old age can also affect fertility. As
stallions grow older, degenerative changes may reduce the total number of sperm produced.
In many cases the sperm produced in the older stallion have more abnormalities, which
can further reduce his fertility. A good semen evaluation program (and use of artificial
insemination, if possible, to save the stallion unnecessary breedings) may be the only way to
obtain foals from an old but valuable stallion.
Heredity
Stallions may inherit tendencies toward high or low fertility. The physical makeup and
structure of his reproductive organs – whether he has large or small testicles, abnormalities
in the reproductive system, testicles that hang properly and are fully descended – are
inheritable. Some colts are born with a condition in which the testicle is unable to produce sperm
at normal levels. Sometimes you'll find families of
stallions in which nearly every male member of that sire line has the same characteristics of
semen and certain defects, whether the horse is young or old. An examination in mid-life
would indicate some level of testicular degeneration, but the horse had the same
abnormality at age four; he was genetically programmed that way. Some subfertility
problems (reduced semen quality, smaller testicles, hormone problems, etc.) are genetic.
This is becoming all too common and may be due partly to the fact that horsemen tend to
disregard reproductive potential when select-ing stallions; they are selecting for other
things than fertility (including speed and athletic ability), and so certain defects in fertility
may be carried along in some sire lines.
Overuse
Too much stress or overuse of a stallion can lead to infertility or
psychological problems that may interfere with his sex drive.
How much a stallion can be used during the breeding season depends on the individual.
Some stallions can be bred daily and occasionally twice or three times daily without
reducing sperm output enough to cause infertility or reduction in libido, while others become infer-tile
or lose their desire after only five or six days of daily use. Stallions should be checked
periodically through the breeding season to evaluate fertility, and stallions with low
fertility should not be used more than two or three times a week.
Overuse of a stallion can reduce semen quality and sperm count. Overuse, especially
of a young stallion, can also jeopardize his future at stud. He may “burn out” and show
his displeasure by not getting ready in his usual time, refusing to mount the mare, or
perhaps mounting several times without ejaculating. Stallions that have been overused,
mishandled, kicked or injured during breeding sometimes develop poor breeding habits. They
may refuse to breed, or dismount too quickly while still in the process of ejaculating, or get
into the habit of ejaculating as they dismount.
Season
Sperm production and sex drive peak in May and June, but many breeders begin the
breeding season in February. This can make for fertility problems. For instance, most
stallions produce only 50 to 75 percent of sperm numbers early in the year as compared with
their normal output in June, and sex drive is also lower in February-March compared with
May or June. Many breeders use artificial lighting for mares to get them cycling more normally
sooner, lengthening the breeding season to allow a stallion more time to cover a larger number of
mares. Some also use artificial lighting for stallions to hasten their full reproductive
potential earlier in the season. Studies have shown that stallions do respond to artificial
lighting, but unlike mares, do not sustain their high level of reproductive function quite as
well throughout the breeding season. Stallions respond to lighting programs by
producing higher levels of hormone, sperm production and libido by February – similar to
what they normally experience in June. But by June some of these values will be dropping,
more like what would be normal in December. So stallions should not be placed on the same
regime; mares are started under lights in November or December, but this is too early
for stallions, causing stallions to peak in reproductive abilities prior to the breeding season,
with libido being reduced too soon afterward. Lights are best used for stallions just one
month prior to the period of anticipated heavy use, otherwise they are not recommended. If
stallions are in the same barn as the mares, make sure there are separate light controls for
their stalls or unscrew the lights in the stallions’ stalls.
Sperm Life
Different stallions have different sperm life (how long the sperm remain alive within
the mare’s reproductive tract). Length of sperm life averages 40 to 60
hours for the majority of stallions, but there are some stallions whose sperm is viable only
up to 24 hours. These stallions must cover their mares within 24 hours of ovulation for
conception to occur. By contrast there are other stallions that can cover a mare as much
as four to five days prior to ovulation and still get her in foal.
Other factors that can interfere with fertility are hormone imbalance and improper
use of drugs. Steroids may cause shedding of too many immature sperm cells (which are not
capable of fertilizing the egg), and may also contribute to decreased “livability” of
apparently normal sperm.
Illness and Injury
Infertility can also be caused by fever. Anything that raises the temperature of the
testicles for any length of time can interfere with sperm production. This is why an illness
in which there is general body fever may leave a horse temporarily infertile. The higher and
longer the fever, the more severe the after-effect on fertility. Local infection or direct
injury to scrotum or testicles can produce inflammation and heat, and subsequent
infertility. The after-effect of local injury or any severe fever may continue for some time, until
sperm are being produced again and become mature. The effect of the production shut-down
may not be evident for several weeks, since the stallion has a large amount of sperm
already stored. The mature sperm may still be viable and he may be able to settle his mares
for awhile, until he runs out of mature sperm and has no more coming on just yet, due to the
gap in production while he was sick or injured. Formation and maturation of sperm cells takes
60 to 70 days. A periodic semen check is advisable following any severe illness or
injury, to see if he will have an infertile period and how long it lasts. The horse may be infertile
very briefly, or for several months before healthy sperm are mature and present in the semen
again. If just one testicle is injured, the other may go ahead and produce normal sperm. A sperm
count in this case may show a lower number, due to lack of production in the injured testicle, or the
count may show half the sperm as normal and half deformed or inactive. Several sperm checks may
be necessary to find out when the horse will be ready for breeding again. In some cases a horse
may not fully recover from injury to the testicles; if there is too much scarring it may permanently
interfere with sperm production.
Improper Management
Good mare and stallion management is crucial for maximizing a stallion’s breeding
efficiency. Proper heat detection and pinpointing ovulation time is essential to keep from overusing a
stallion. Manipulation of the estrous cycle and ovulation (such as use of artificial lighting to
bring mares into fertile heat earlier in the season, or use of hormones to bring a mare into
fertile heat at a certain time) may be necessary to get full utilization of a stallion.
Management can be a very big factor in stallion fertility; a stallion whose inherent
fertility (as evaluated by sperm count and quality, etc.) is only 10 to 20 percent can achieve a 50 to
80 percent pregnancy rate with excellent management, whereas a highly fertile stallion may
end up with very low pregnancy rate under poor management. What we call “stallion fertility” is
actually a combination of his basic fertility, the fertility of the mares he is bred to, and the
breeding management.
Testicle Conformation
Size and position of the testicles play important roles in fertility. Since the testicles produce
and store sperm, a stallion with large testicles is almost always more fertile. Another important
factor is whether the testicles are completely descended into the scrotum. If one or both are
only partly descended, the horse will be relatively infertile or even sterile, because of the effect
of body heat upon his sperm factory. Stallion fertility is a complex mix of many
factors, some of which are easy to evaluate and/or correct and some not. If a stallion has a
certain problem that lowers fertility, often the veterinarian, farm manager and stallion handler
can work together and with careful management and mare selection get an acceptable pregnancy
rate. With good teamwork, some problems can be resolved or minimized so that the stallion can be
a successful breeder. HT
Heather Smith Thomas is a freelance writer living in Salmon, Idaho. She is the author of several
books and can be reached at 208-756-2841 or
hsthomas@ida.net
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Horse and Rider: The Magic of
Round Pens
by Christina Fleming
Far too often, frustrated horse owners tell me that they can’t train at
home because they don’t have the “magical” round pen. They went to a
clinic and discovered that having this pen is a necessary part of “the”
program. Undoubtedly, a safe place to
work a horse is important, but the modern emphasis on round pen training
has left many horse owners feeling “facility inadequate”. Following are the
most frequently asked questions I get from the website and various training
clinics regarding round pens, along with my answers. Is an enclosed place to work
your horse important?
Most horse owners should not be out in the open with other loose horses
present as an ideal training environment. It’s difficult at best to keep the
horse being worked “safe” from the taunting of his pasture mates and
focused on you without a physical barrier, all the while ensuring your own
safety. In addition, I am a firm believer in allowing the horse an open space
of his own, if possible, where we ask nothing
else of him other than to just be himself. This practice drastically decreases the mental
stress level of the working horse. So what if you only have one pasture to
work in? I suggest fencing in a spot just for work within that pasture. If that isn’t
practical, remove all the other loose horses from the area while you work. Although it is the same
physical space as the horse’s turnout, the dynamics of the environment change when all
other horses are removed. Working around
loose horses is generally not a safe situation for the at-home trainer.
Does size matter?
Size does matter when it comes to a working space. Areas that are too big may force the
handler to move more than he wants to during groundwork, especially when working with a
young horse or a schooled horse that has learned avoidance. Likewise, a space that is
too small does not allow a horse to move easily
from gait to gait or for you to keep a safe distance from a horse that is playing or otherwise
engaged in doing something he shouldn’t be.
Must it be round?
NO! In fact, I advise people who are building a working pen NOT to design it round
in shape. Along with this, a lot of owners don’t have the space or budget to build a “round”
pen and a riding arena. The compromise can be one medium size oval pen that works for
riding and groundwork. Even if you plan on building two spaces, I still advise against
making one round. My experience is that people unintentionally misuse round pens and end up
with leg and/or joint problems due to the
stress of working a horse on an arc. Young, developing horses are especially prone to joint
problems from moving on a constant circle. My own smaller breaking pen is oval. This
allows for free lunging work to take place on an arc and on a straight wall. It also provides for
substantial relief from bending and turning in one direction. In the real world, horses move
on an arc and in straight lines.
Metal, plastic or wood?
This is a personal, budget, and need-related decision. I have used many different
pen materials, my favorite being fiberglass rod on fiberglass posts recycled from oil drilling
rigs. When you start a lot of horses you want something that’s sturdy, but tough, and less
apt to hurt the horse that challenges it. The fiberglass rod has plenty of give but won’t
break. When a post breaks it still bounces back due to the cross supporting rods holding
the pen’s shape. I now have a wood pen that is also work- posts and have 2x8x8 planks as rail
boards. Metal is fine if it’s welded properly and permanently installed. I personally
do not like temporary metal panels as a horse jumping into one panel ends up
pulling several attached panels down
and the wreck ends up being far bigger, more dramatic and usually more
damaging
than it had to be. Other good options exist but what-ever you choose, make sure it is tall
enough for the type of horses you work and will stand up to the occasional
escape attempt or accident.
What about the gate?
After you invest a lot of time and money into fencing material, don’t
simply string a rope or chain across the opening. Choose a gate that, if
challenged, is less likely to cause injury to the horse being worked. What I have
found is that a horse who plans on making a challenge usually attempts it at the gate –
the weakest place in the pen. For this reason, I install steel sliding brackets above the gates
on the gateposts where a board can be slid into place when I work an unfamiliar horse, or a
horse with a history of jumping gates or fences. The board protects the horse from the gate and
provides a better visual barrier. Thoroughly examine any gate you are
thinking of purchasing for areas that could cut a horse, and for openings that could catch a leg
or head. Once you bring it home, make sure it’s properly installed. Even the best gate is a
hazard when installed incorrectly.
Should the horse be able to see outside the pen?
Pens that block all outside stimulus are what I call “sanitary”. I have actually heard
people say that they need this type of pen in order to keep and hold the horse’s attention. If
you need to have a total visual barrier in order to keep a horses
attention you have a major gap in your training program. What happens to this
horse when he is worked or ridden outside the pen? A physical barrier provides for safety
during specific portions of a training program, a visual barrier is a shortcut to learning how to
get and keep a horses attention.
My favorite pen was situated on the bank of a large river. Frequently I would be climbing on a horse for the first time and a flock
of geese would land or a water skier would glide by. I’ll never forget
the show I attended where a palomino horse I had started was
competing for the first time. It had rained for days and the middle of the
arena was like a pond. Right in the middle of the class several ducks
landed in the water. Guess which horse didn’t miss a beat and won the
class? In my opinion, the more stimuli the horse experiences while in
the safety of the pen the better.
What else do I need to know?
The training pen is not a panacea. In fact, it can spell mental melt-down
for the horse that is rarely worked outside of it. I use an oval pen
to establish some necessary safety skills and then I get out! Working a
horse on the trail or out in the open is a necessary part of his learning
experience. Certainly the pen provides a safe place to deal with
problem behaviors or to review basic skills. However, it is not a magical
space, nor is it absolutely required to successfully train your horse!
Christina Fleming is a lifelong horsewoman currently living in Cerrillos,
NM. She trains, gives lessons and offers clinics on a variety of subjects.
She has a BS in Biology and is a certified instructor, judge and guide. You
can visit her website at www.newmexicohorsetrainer.com or send her an
E-mail at NMVaquera@aol.com. |
Today's Horse Trader is Published by
Frankadette, Inc
P.O. Box 220279
Newhall, CA 91322
Toll Free 888-705-3711
Fax 661-253-1725
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